4. Stoicism

Stoicism is an ancient Greek philosophy that teaches the development of self-control, rational thinking and resilience as a path to living a virtuous and fulfilling life. Founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium around the early 3rd century BCE, Stoicism became one of the most influential schools of thought in both the Hellenistic world and later, the Roman Empire. It emphasizes accepting things outside of our control and focusing on our own thoughts, actions and reactions.

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Key principles of Stoicism include:

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• Virtue is the Highest Good: For Stoics, living virtuously is the most important goal in life. Virtue consists of wisdom, courage, justice and self-discipline. Acting in accordance with these virtues, regardless of external circumstances, is the key to true happiness.​

• Control What You Can: Stoicism teaches that while we cannot control external events (such as the actions of others, natural disasters, or our own death), we can control how we respond to these events. Stoics emphasize focusing on what is within our power—our own thoughts, emotions and behaviours.​

• Embrace Fate (Amor Fati): Stoics believe that everything happens according to a rational, natural order (sometimes called the Logos or divine reason). They encourage acceptance of this order, including life's difficulties and misfortunes. By embracing rather than resisting fate, we can find peace and contentment.​

• Indifference to External Things: External things—wealth, health, reputation, success—are seen as "indifferent" in Stoic philosophy. While they may be preferable, they do not affect one's inner virtue or capacity for happiness. Stoics aim to remain calm and unmoved by the ups and downs of life, focusing instead on maintaining their character and principles.​

• Emotional Resilience: Stoicism teaches that negative emotions like anger, fear or grief arise from faulty judgments or unrealistic expectations. By training the mind to align with reason and accepting things as they are, Stoics seek to cultivate inner peace and resilience in the face of adversity.

 

Prominent Stoic philosophers include Epictetus, a former slave whose teachings emphasized the importance of mental freedom; Seneca, a Roman statesman who wrote extensively on how to manage wealth and power virtuously; and Marcus Aurelius, the Roman Emperor whose "Meditations" offer reflections on Stoic principles and how to apply them to everyday life.

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Ultimately, Stoicism is about cultivating inner strength, equanimity and moral integrity in a world that is often unpredictable and challenging.